The short version of HPLC fits in a sentence. The long version — which is the one that helps — is below.
Reviewed 2025-08-12. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Commercial creatine monohydrate is produced mainly by chemical synthesis rather than extraction from animal tissue. Suppliers provide a certificate of analysis listing assay, water content, and impurity limits, and some products undergo third-party testing. Verification of identity can use infrared or Raman spectroscopy alongside chromatographic methods. Storage recommendations generally call for a cool, dry place and a tightly closed container to limit moisture uptake. Open questions include how packaging, flavoring agents, and long-term storage affect the stability of finished products.
Dry creatine monohydrate is generally stable when kept sealed and protected from heat and moisture. In solution, however, creatine undergoes a slow cyclization to creatinine, a related compound with no role in phosphocreatine storage. The rate of this conversion increases with temperature and is influenced by pH. Because creatinine is a common impurity in liquid or poorly stored products, analytical testing often measures both compounds. The crystalline monohydrate is less prone to degradation than aqueous preparations, though caking can occur if moisture enters the container.
Laboratory analysis of creatine monohydrate typically uses high-performance liquid chromatography to separate creatine from creatinine and other impurities. Detection may be ultraviolet, refractive index, or mass spectrometric, depending on the laboratory's equipment and the required sensitivity. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy can quantify the main component and identify related substances. Water content is measured by Karl Fischer titration, which is important because the monohydrate has a defined theoretical hydration level. Heavy metals, residual solvents, and microbial limits are also checked in quality control programs.
In chemical terms, creatine monohydrate is often described as N-(aminoiminomethyl)-N-methylglycine monohydrate, though nomenclature varies. Its solid state consists of zwitterionic creatine molecules linked with water through hydrogen bonding. The compound dissolves in water, but dissolution rate depends on particle size, temperature, and agitation. Once dissolved, the hydrate water becomes part of the solvent, leaving free creatine in solution. The monohydrate is not the same as creatine anhydrous, which lacks the water of crystallization and has a higher creatine fraction by mass.
Commercial creatine monohydrate is typically a white to off-white powder with low odor. It is commonly sold as a fine powder, micronized powder, or larger crystals, but these are physical forms of the same chemical. Purity grades vary, and products may contain small amounts of related substances such as creatinine, dicyandiamide, or moisture. The monohydrate is often selected for supplements and research because its production is well established and its behavior in water is predictable. Analytical certificates usually report assay, loss on drying, and heavy metals.
Creatine monohydrate is a crystalline compound formed from creatine and one water molecule in its solid lattice. Creatine itself is a nitrogen-containing organic acid involved in energy transfer in muscle and other tissues. The monohydrate form is the most common solid form used in research and commercial products because it is stable and easy to handle. The term "monohydrate" refers to the fixed one-to-one ratio of water to creatine in the crystal, not to moisture content. This distinction matters when comparing labels or calculating creatine content.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Typical storage temperature | 15–25 °C | Protect from moisture, heat, and direct sunlight |
| Analytical method | HPLC with UV or RI detection | Separates creatine from creatinine and related impurities |
| Water content | About 12.1% w/w | Theoretical value for the monohydrate crystal |
| Degradation product | Creatinine | Formed by cyclization, especially in aqueous solution |
| Common assay specification | 98.0–102.0% | Range depends on the testing method and monograph |
Creatine monohydrate is one of several solid forms of creatine described in the literature. Other forms include anhydrous creatine, creatine hydrochloride, and creatine ethyl ester, each with different solubility and stability characteristics. The monohydrate is distinct from creatinine, a spontaneous breakdown compound that forms when creatine loses water and cyclizes. Commercial descriptions sometimes use synonyms such as methylguanidoacetic acid or N-(aminoiminomethyl)-N-methylglycine, which refer to the same base molecule. These names appear in chemical databases and product labels.
Creatine monohydrate is a crystalline compound formed when one molecule of creatine binds with one molecule of water. Creatine itself is a nitrogen-containing organic acid involved in cellular energy transfer, particularly in muscle and nerve tissue. The monohydrate form is the most common solid form used in research and commercial products because it is relatively stable and easy to handle. Its molecular formula is C4H9N3O2·H2O, and its molar mass is about 149.15 grams per mole.
In aqueous solution, creatine monohydrate undergoes a slow conversion to creatinine, a cyclized degradation product. This reaction is pH- and temperature-dependent, and it proceeds faster in warm or alkaline conditions. Because the conversion is gradual, analytical measurements of creatine in solution must account for time and storage history. The equilibrium favors creatinine more strongly at higher temperatures, which is relevant to sample handling in laboratories and to beverage formulations. Refrigeration slows but does not entirely stop this process.
Quality assessment of creatine monohydrate typically uses high-performance liquid chromatography to separate creatine from creatinine and other impurities. Other methods include nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, titration, and infrared spectroscopy for identity confirmation. Purity is often reported as a percentage of the labeled compound on a dry basis, while moisture content is measured separately. Because different analytical methods have different selectivity, comparing purity values across sources requires attention to the method and sample preparation.
Creatine monohydrate is the hydrated form of creatine, a nitrogen-containing organic acid involved in cellular energy transfer. Its molecular formula is C4H11N3O3, and it consists of creatine plus one water molecule in the crystal lattice. The anhydrous base, creatine, has the formula C4H9N3O2. The compound appears as a white, odorless, crystalline powder and is classified as a guanidine derivative. It is distinct from creatinine, a breakdown product measured in clinical chemistry.
In animals, creatine is synthesized mainly in liver, kidney, and pancreas from arginine, glycine, and methionine. The first committed step transfers a guanidino group from arginine to glycine, forming guanidinoacetate. Subsequent methylation by S-adenosylmethionine yields creatine. Dietary sources include meat and fish; endogenous synthesis supplies part of the body pool. Most creatine is stored in skeletal muscle, where it is converted to phosphocreatine and participates in rapid regeneration of adenosine triphosphate during short, intense activity.
Manufacturing processes can leave trace amounts of dicyandiamide, creatinine, or residual solvents, depending on the synthetic route and purification steps. Heavy metals, arsenic, and microbial contamination are also monitored for food or pharmaceutical grades. Particle size distribution can affect dissolution behavior and blending uniformity, so it may be specified for certain applications. Analytical results are reported on a dry basis or as-is basis, and the difference matters when comparing certificates of analysis. Open questions remain about how minor impurities influence long-term stability under varied storage conditions.
Stability studies typically examine the effects of temperature, humidity, and light on creatine monohydrate. Sealed containers stored in cool, dry conditions help limit moisture uptake and hydrolysis. Elevated temperature and high relative humidity can accelerate conversion to creatinine, especially in aqueous solutions. In solid dosage forms, excipients and processing steps may also affect stability. Published stability data are not fully consistent across studies because test conditions and analytical methods vary.
Quality control of creatine monohydrate relies on a combination of identity, purity, and moisture tests. High-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection is widely used to separate creatine from creatinine and other related nitrogenous compounds. Spectroscopic methods such as infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance provide structural confirmation. Because the material is a hydrate, water content is measured separately, often by Karl Fischer titration. These tests together establish whether a lot meets a defined specification.
=== Weight loss and regain === As of 2007, there was no evidence showing that weight loss is directly correlated with ingesting capsaicin. Well-designed clinical research had not been performed because the pungency of capsaicin in prescribed doses under research prevented subjects from complying in the study. A 2014 meta-analysis of further trials found weak evidence that consuming capsaicin before a meal might slightly reduce the amount of food consumed, and might drive food preference toward carbohydrates.
Like the NAS, the World Health Organization has tried to balance public health goals with a practical level of trans fat consumption, recommending in 2003 that trans fats be limited to less than 1% of overall energy intake. A meta-analysis showed that all trans fats, regardless of natural or artificial origin equally raise LDL and lower HDL levels. Other studies though have shown different results when it comes to animal based trans fats like conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). Although CLA is known for its anticancer properties, researchers have also found that the cis-9, trans-11 form of CLA can reduce the risk for cardiovascular disease and help fight inflammation.
=== 7 August === Sudanese prosecutors charged Hemedti and 16 other TASIS leaders with committing war crimes in El Fasher and South Kordofan. Three SLM officials (Legal Advisor Mahmoud Koreina, Economic Affairs Advisor Adam al-Nur, and Media Advisor Mustafa al-Jamil) announced the formation of a splinter faction in Uganda following their dismissal by Minni Minawi. Eighteen people were killed in RSF attacks on the villages of Markaz Al-Ziyadia and Lamina al-Ziyadiyah in North Kordofan.
The developer of the Half-Life series, Valve, was founded in 1996 in Kirkland, Washington by the former Microsoft employees Mike Harrington and Gabe Newell. Valve began working on the first Half-Life soon after formation, and settled on a concept for a horror-themed 3D action game, using the Quake engine as licensed by id Software. The game was a hit at the 1997 E3 convention, where its animation system and artificial intelligence were demonstrated. The success led to its first expansion pack, Half-Life: Opposing Force, which was developed by Gearbox Software, a new company based in Plano, Texas, and announced on April 15, 1999. The Gearbox founder, Randy Pitchford, said Valve gave them the project to allow Valve to focus on future games. Opposing Force was demonstrated at the 1999 E3 convention, where new locations, characters and the story were revealed. The second Half-Life expansion pack, Half-Life: Blue Shift, was again developed by Gearbox Software and announced by its publisher, Sierra Entertainment, on August 30, 2000. Sierra intended to release Blue Shift for the Dreamcast, and it was set to include higher detail models and textures that were double the polygon count of the models from Half-Life. However, after several months of delays, Sierra terminated the Dreamcast version of Blue Shift on June 16, 2001, and instead released it for Windows on June 12. Afterward, Gearbox began working on a Half-Life game for the PlayStation 2.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
On July 25, 2018, the Ford government passed Bill 2, which "put a severe dent into the operations of Hydro One", a former Crown corporation which went public in November 2015. The Toronto-based Hydro One is the province's "largest electricity transmission and distribution service provider" with "nearly 1.4 million customers". Hydro One was established under the Business Corporations Act Crown corporation under the Government of Ontario. Bill 2 places a cap on the compensation allowed for executive members of the board of directors, and gave Ford's provincial government a "direct say in the naming of directors" representing a major shift from what was agreed upon between shareholders and the government when Hydro One went public three years earlier. Under Premier Ford, the CEO and the entire board of directors were replaced. The former CEO, Mayo Schmidt was replaced by Tim Hodgson, a Ford appointee, who took on his new position in August 2019 with an annual salary of $120,000. Hydro One was in the process of acquiring American energy firm Avista Inc., when "U.S. regulators scuttled" the purchase "costing the Toronto-based company a $140 million termination penalty." The Washington Utilities and Transportation Commission said that they blocked the purchase of Avista because of concerns about the independence of Hydro One from the Ontario provincial government. Reducing Ontario consumer electricity costs by 12% was one of the campaign promises made by the Conservative Party. government had promised to cut consumers' electricity prices 12%.
For example, set to a threshold of 3 μm, all cells are counted. A re-count at a threshold of 4 μm allows calculation of the number of cells of a size between 3 and 4 μm from the total counts. Diluting the blood sample 1/80 000 in a physiological saline solution allows enumeration of the erythrocytes, as the number of leukocytes does not affect the result more than by about 1/1 000 000. For the leukocyte count, cells in the same sample are hemolyzed with saponin or cetrimide so that only the nuclei of the leukocytes are counted. For platelet count, a smaller capillary diameter is used. To identify cell morphologies and variants that the counter cannot detect, microscopy remains an essential complement to the automated cell count method.
== Taxonomy == The species was first described in 1906 as Stropharia cubensis by American mycologist Franklin Sumner Earle in Cuba. In 1907, it was identified as Naematoloma caerulescens in Tonkin (now Vietnam) by French pharmacist and mycologist Narcisse Théophile Patouillard, while in 1941, it was called Stropharia cyanescens by William Alphonso Murrill near Gainesville in Florida. German-born mycologist Rolf Singer moved the species into the genus Psilocybe in 1949, giving it the binomial name Psilocybe cubensis. The synonyms were later also assigned to the species Psilocybe cubensis. The name Psilocybe is derived from the Ancient Greek roots psilos (ψιλος) and kubê (κυβη), and translates as "bare head". Cubensis means "coming from Cuba", and refers to the type locality published by Earle. Singer divided P. cubensis into three varieties: the nominate, which usually had a brownish cap, Murrill's cyanescens from Florida, which generally had a pale cap, and var caerulascens from Indochina with a more yellowish cap. Psilocybe cubensis is commonly known as gold top, golden top or gold cap in Australia, sacred mushroom or blue mushroom in Brazil, and San Ysidro or Palenque mushroom in the United States and Mexico, while the term "magic mushroom" has been applied to hallucinogenic mushrooms in general. It is commonly known as "Golden teacher" in South Africa. A common name in Thai is "Hed keequai", which translates as "mushroom which appears after water buffalo defecates". Between 2013 and 2022, several samples of an unknown species of Psilocybe mushroom were collected.
== Global occurrence and sources == PFOA contaminates every continent. Two of the most common types of PFAS (more precisely, PFOS and PFOA) were phased out of production in the United States (US) in 2002 and 2015 respectively, but are still present in some imported products. PFOA and PFOS are found in every American person's blood stream in the parts per billion range, though those concentrations have decreased by 70% for PFOA and 84% for PFOS between 1999 and 2014, which coincides with the end of the production and phase out of PFOA and PFOS in the US. PFOA has been detected in the central Pacific Ocean at low parts per quadrillion ranges, and at low parts per trillion (ppt) levels in coastal waters. Due to the surfactant nature of PFOA, it has been found to concentrate in the top layers of ocean water. PFOA is detected widely in surface waters, and is present in numerous mammals, fish, and bird species. PFOA is in the blood or vital organs of Atlantic salmon, swordfish, striped mullet, gray seals, common cormorants, Alaskan polar bears, brown pelicans, sea turtles, sea eagles, Midwestern bald eagles, California sea lions and Laysan albatrosses on Sand Island, a wildlife refuge on Midway Atoll, in the middle of the North Pacific Ocean, about halfway between North America and Asia. Because PFAS are ubiquitous in households, consumer products, food, and the environment generally, some trace levels reflecting this ubiquitous broad use of these compounds will make their way into the wastewater and solid waste streams.
=== Crime === Moore has blamed his predecessor, Governor Larry Hogan, for increased violent crime in Maryland, citing his lack of collaboration between his administration and local leaders and legislators. During his 2022 gubernatorial campaign, he called on Hogan to target state resources toward preventing gun violence in Baltimore and campaigned on addressing crime in the city through better cooperation between the city and state, and to leverage these relationships on the federal level to bring more resources into the city. In January 2023, Moore told CBS News that he supported a bill that would prohibit charging juveniles with felony murder. In January 2023, following the release of videos capturing the arrest and police assault of Tyre Nichols, Moore condemned the brutality of the police and thanked the United States Department of Justice for opening an investigation into Nichols's death. He later said in an interview that Nichols's death only highlighted the need to tackle injustice head-on. In February 2023, Moore pledged $11 million in funding for the Maryland Coordination and Analysis Center, an agency that serves as a data-sharing platform for law enforcement officials across the state. He also said that his administration would not use a quota system for traffic stops and arrests after a Baltimore Banner investigation found that Maryland State Police supervisors previously demanded troopers hit targets for traffic stops and arrests.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, (CHP), popularly known simply as "Children's", is part of the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, and the only hospital in Southwestern Pennsylvania dedicated solely to the care of infants, children, teens and young adults well into their 20s and beyond, generally stopping around age 26. UPMC Children's also sometimes even treats older adults that require pediatric care. Care is provided by more than 700 board-certified pediatricians and pediatric specialists. Children's also provides primary care and specialty care at over 30 locations throughout the Pittsburgh region, as well as clinical specialty services throughout western Pennsylvania at regional health care facilities. UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh was one of only eight pediatric hospitals in the United States to make U.S. News & World Report's 2010-11 Best Children's Hospitals Honor Roll and is ranked in all ten of the specialties evaluated by US News. Children's is also one of only eight children's hospitals in the United States to be named as a Leapfrog Top Hospital and was ranked sixth in the nation by Parents magazine. UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh is a specialty hospital of UPMC, specializing in pediatrics and is located two and a half miles from UPMC Presbyterian in the Lawrenceville neighborhood of Pittsburgh. Serving as UPMC's primary pediatrics facility, it was originally located adjacent to UPMC Presbyterian in Oakland.
BOP (benzotriazol-1-yloxytris(dimethylamino)phosphonium hexafluorophosphate) is a reagent commonly used for the synthesis of amides from carboxylic acids and amines in peptide synthesis. It can be prepared from 1-hydroxybenzotriazole and a chlorophosphonium reagent under basic conditions. This reagent has advantages in peptide synthesis since it avoids side reactions like the dehydration of asparagine or glutamine residues. BOP has used for the synthesis of esters from the carboxylic acids and alcohols. BOP has also been used in the reduction of carboxylic acids to primary alcohols with sodium borohydride (NaBH4). Its use raises safety concerns since the carcinogenic compound HMPA is produced as a stoichiometric by-product.
Source: Tendon cells are typically elongated, spindle-shaped cells that align along the axis of tendon fibers. They contain large amounts of rough endoplasmic reticulum to support the production of collagen. The unique structure of tendon cells allows them to withstand mechanical stress and contribute to tendon strength and flexibility.
Tofu skin is produced when soy milk is boiled in an open, shallow pan, thus producing a film or skin composed primarily of a soy protein-lipid complex on the liquid surface. Tofu skin is cooked with noodles.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Purity testing often uses high-performance liquid chromatography to measure creatine and creatinine. Water content can be checked by Karl Fischer titration. Additional tests may cover heavy metals, residual solvents, and microbial contamination.
In solution, creatine can cyclize spontaneously to creatinine. Heat and certain pH conditions increase the rate of this conversion. Dry crystalline material is more stable because the reaction requires water.
Typical storage is in a sealed container at room temperature, away from moisture and direct heat. These conditions reduce caking and slow degradation. Liquid products require more careful handling because creatine is less stable in water.
It is a solid form of creatine that contains one water molecule per creatine molecule in the crystal lattice. The hydrate water is part of the crystal structure rather than loose moisture. The term is often used for the common crystalline powder grade.